Black People & the Illusion of Equality in Peoples Temple

The historiography of Peoples Temple and the massacre at Jonestown continues to evolve over the years. Early accounts often overlooked or overshadowed sub-groups, particularly the significant presence of Black members, instead focusing understandably on the leadership and manipulation of its leader Jim Jones. Those that do address the former, either do so briefly, broadly, or primarily try to address what drew a considerable number of African Americans to join and support a church led by a white man. This is perhaps natural, and it is an aspect of my research question and statement as well. In general, the historiographical trends I have identified regarding African Americans in the organization largely come down to outlining its racial composition, the appeal of Jones’ rhetoric and its role in motivating Blacks to join, and the influence of Black churches and religious practices. However, a recent theme that has emerged is the erasure and subsequent importance of uplifting the voices of Black survivors and deceased members. I also believe that an additional aspect that deserves mentioning is that while Peoples Temple’s appeal and social justice initiatives are acknowledged, they are often framed within the context of Jones’ manipulation rather than as legitimate efforts supported by many members—including, but not limited to, people of color—who were wholeheartedly seeking change.

The first chapter of Hearing the Voices of Jonestown by Mary McCormick Maaga, titled “Who Were the Members of Peoples Temple?” is an analysis of Peoples Temple’s demographics, expansion, and the reasons behind members’ decision to join. The community consisted of a mix of people from various backgrounds, and to Maaga, depicts a movement striving to overcome age, race, and class barriers. “The rank and file were almost exclusively urban blacks of all ages and both genders,” with 70-80 percent of Jonestown residents being Black, 25 percent white, and the rest consisting of a mix of Hispanic, Native American, Asian, and biracial (19). Notably, Maaga follows this by challenging the racist generalization or assumption that Peoples Temple’s predominantly Black congregation was more foolish, vulnerable, and susceptible to Jones’ influence due to a lack of education. She cites the diverse, complex reasons for people to join, including not just the promise of racial equality, but a sense of belonging, economic security, superior healthcare and better living conditions.

However, it is worth mentioning that while Maaga does argue for a deeper understanding of all the people involved to fully understand the events at Jonestown, her work as a whole is limited by the absence of Black female perspectives and experiences. By contrast, she lends more focus to white members, particularly white women, emphasizing the significant, albeit often behind-the-scenes, roles they played in supporting Jones and in the day-to-day operations of the Temple. By uplifting one group, another is inadvertently neglected. This omission creates a significant void in her study, which detracts from the thoroughness of her argument and mirrors the wider historiographical gap and neglect of African Americans within the broader narrative of Peoples Temple. In the case of Maaga’s book, it results in the double exclusion of African American women.

An oversight such as this reveals how common it is for marginalized groups to be overlooked, even within studies aimed at exploring diverse experiences. It highlights the need for a deliberate effort on the part of historians to assess whose voices are privileged and, from there, to not only acknowledge but actively seek out and engage with those that have been traditionally silenced and underrepresented. Recognizing this is one of the first steps in creating both a comprehensive, nuanced approach and a complete, accurate record that is inclusive towards African Americans in the historiography of Peoples Temple.

Peoples Temple’s rapid growth and popularity among Black communities was influenced by the long-standing traditions and organization structures of Black churches. Going back to the trend of laying out the motivations for Black people to join, in his book Salvation and Suicide, David Chidester references the words of a former Black female member that shed light on how the Temple might have compared to other Black churches at the time. He noted that the church established by Jones “provided the atmosphere of love, trust, and social concern that she found lacking in other black institutions” (50). This is supported by Milmon F. Harrison in his essay “Jim Jones and Black Worship Traditions,” featured in Peoples Temple and Black Religion in America, in which he explains that Jones made “attempts to create and maintain an atmosphere that the African Americans in his church would recognize as genuine, provide validation of their experience, and become the basis for a much more politically active spirituality than the churches from which so many had come” (136). Harrison highlights core Black Church traditions that emphasize social and ultimate divine justice, communal values, and emotional, participatory worship, all of which Jones invoked in his sermons and Peoples Temple services. For instance, like most Black preachers and ministers, Jones’ preaching style was characterized by storytelling, rhythmic speech patterns, and the “call and response” technique to engage the audience. Harrison emphasizes that these practices were not merely superficial adoptions or tools but were deeply and authentically embedded in Peoples Temple’s worship experience. In this context, he believes that it is worth mentioning the role of Jones’ upbringing, simultaneously influenced by his mother’s unconventional religious and socio-political beliefs as well as his exposure to Holiness-Pentecostal traditions, which is deeply intertwined with Black faith traditions. In the 1960s, Jones also was influenced in particular by Father Divine, the Black preacher leading the Peace Mission Movement. Jones’ early interest in socialism and his admiration for the latter further shaped his efforts to establish an inclusive environment and community in Peoples Temple.

Through the lens of Black religious studies, it becomes apparent that Peoples Temple’s appeal to African American members was deeply rooted in the customs and traditions of Black churches in the community. As a result, this approach is valuable due to the historical and social context it provides in evaluating the racial aspect of Peoples Temple and Jonestown. Despite being a broader, situational technique, we see with the inclusion of the above former member’s words that it should not be too difficult to simultaneously amplify the personal voices of African Americans individuals. But if that is the case, why has it not been done more often?

Recent scholarship by authors such as Rebecca Moore (co-founder of the Jonestown Institute), Sikivu Hutchinson, and Georgia Box has shifted the narrative to go beyond the general factors influencing Black individuals’ involvement in the movement and instead specifically center on their perspectives and contributions. In “The Erasure (and Re-inscription) of African Americans from the Jonestown Narrative,” Moore immediately states that “a major part of the narrative remains ignored: the narrative told from the perspective of African Americans, who made up the majority of residents of the Jonestown community” (2018). Similarly, Hutchinson contends in her article “No More White Saviors: Jonestown and Peoples Temple in the Black Feminist Imagination” that “Even though they were the largest demographic in Peoples Temple, black women have seldom been portrayed as lead protagonists in popular representations of Jonestown” and that “dehumanizing cultural representations of black people” also persist in the broader historiography as well (2014). Furthermore, throughout their articles, both point out that many historical accounts in the first few decades following the Jonestown massacre have neglected and downplayed the agency of Black members, failing to adequately capture not just their reasons for joining but how they themselves engaged with the movement. Instead, the two authors insist on and highlight that Black members were not unresisting, passive victims but complex individuals with their own identity, convictions, and impact, just like other congregants.

In her article, Moore examines and challenges head on the pervasive omission of the Black experience within the discourse surrounding Peoples Temple. According to her, this erasure is systematic and thus has not only implications but also mechanisms by which it operates. Through detailed charts and graphs, Moore highlights the disproportionate impact on African American residents, particularly in terms of gender and age distribution among both survivors and victims. In order to demonstrate the importance of taking into account their voices and how that can be achieved in the historiography, she uses direct personal accounts by Black members, such as Leslie Wagner-Wilson, as well as works by Black poets like Audre Lorde to give insight into the complexities of life in Peoples Temple and humanize those who lived and died at Jonestown. In Hutchinson’s critique of the prevailing historiography of the cult, she seeks, more than anything, to rectify the racial politics of gender within it. She questions the absence of Black feminist readings in the archive and stresses the necessity to understand the context of Black female membership. She also argues that utilizing and amplifying Black journalism is a route that will effectively boost the lives and voices of Black female individuals in Peoples Temple.

It’s also worth expanding on the anthology Peoples Temple and Black Religion in America, which I briefly mentioned earlier. This collection presents a wide range of perspectives and focal points on the role of African American religiosity within the Temple, and includes contributions by Moore, Harrison, and other scholars. For instance, in “Peoples Temple and Housing Politics in San Francisco,” Tanya Hollis focuses on the Temple’s housing initiatives in the Fillmore District in San Francisco in the 1970s. She notes its role as a critical player in fulfilling the basic needs of those in Black urban communities, but also critiques its strategy. While addressing immediate needs—such as food, health care, and community—it ultimately failed to combat the broader systemic issues plaguing Black and marginalized communities, as well as stripping individuals of meaningful external autonomy. Similarly, Duchess Harris and Adam John Waterman’s chapter, “To Die for the Peoples Temple: Religion and Revolution after Black Power” examines the Temple’s relationship and alignment with the Black Power movement and how the former’s blending of political and religious rhetoric created a particularly unique appeal for African Americans. As they note, it “expressed a genuine desire to locate themselves and their community in the midst of an emergent global political and religious project” (105) and helped establish a “sense of collective destiny” for all members of Peoples Temple (121). However, Harris and Waterman also point out that despite this social and political engagement, the Temple missed many opportunities to collaborate with other Black activist groups, in contrast to the Black Panther Party, which contributed to the Temple’s eventual unraveling. The other contributors—Anthony B. Pinn, C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence H. Mamiya, Archie Smith Jr., J. Alfred Smith, Muhammed Isaiah Kenyatta, and Mary R. Sawyer—also discuss various facets of African American religious life and culture relating to Peoples Temple, from drawing parallels between Jones and Father Divine’s approaches to Black faith communities to breaking down the shortcomings of traditional explanations for the Jonestown massacre, Black religious studies, and Black churches. Collectively, these works provide a deeper, multidimensional understanding of African American involvement and racial dynamics within and surrounding Peoples Temple, unpacking the complex social, political, and religious factors at play, while also explaining the lasting implications for Black history and culture.

Fielding McGehee, the co-director of the Jonestown Institute archive along with Moore, personally told me that while several Black survivors and scholars such as Hutchinson have made efforts to acknowledge and address this gap in Jonestown historiography, this subject is still a vein that has not been delved into extensively enough. The works by Moore and Hutchinson as well as Peoples Temple and Black Religion in America are among the first to truly expand on the discourse surrounding race in Peoples Temple. Moreover, Hutchinson’s specific attention to the Black feminist perspective offers a new lens through which to view the experiences of the largest subpopulation in the movement. Maintaining this effort to reframe the narrative of this topic inevitably means poring through existing primary sources and seeking out untold stories to ensure that a comprehensive picture of the Black experience can be painted. Very recently, a letter was confirmed to have been written by Christine Miller, a Black woman who was the only (known) voice of dissent during the mass murder-suicide at Jonestown. While the letter itself may have been discovered earlier, it was only recently identified as being authored by Miller. If a firsthand account such as this could be recognized for the first time in more than four decades since the tragedy, then it is more than possible that further searches and examination can yield and reveal additional narratives.

Outline

Peoples Temple, founded by Jim Jones in 1954 in Indianapolis, is best remembered today for the mass murder-suicide of over 900 of its members, orchestrated by Jones himself, in their settlement of Jonestown in Guyana on November 18, 1978. The church aimed to be an inclusive religious community that transcended societal divisions (like notions of ownership, hence its name) and welcomed people from all backgrounds and walks of life. Among these were African Americans, who made up the majority of the congregation. But while Jones and the Temple were very effective in attracting and retaining a predominantly Black membership through meaningful engagement with Black religious culture as well as championing racial equality and social justice, there was actually a stark disparity between these promises and the lived experiences of African Americans within the cult.

Historiographical Themes: The major themes I have observed in the historiography of my topic include authors explaining the reasons or incentives for so many African Americans to join the organization; highlighting how Black religious institutions and customs influenced Jones’ style of preaching as well as the overall structure of the church; and more recently, addressing the erasure of Black voices from most narratives surrounding Jonestown and emphasizing the importance of uplifting them, instead. My project fits in the latter trend, which is still gradually developing, according to Fielding McGehee.

Significance: My project is important because I try to provide more attention to and nuance for a perspective that is often overshadowed in mainstream accounts about Peoples Temple. Instead of focusing solely on the leadership and manipulation of Jones, I made an effort to uncover and learn about the contributions and unique challenges faced by Black members within the church. My research broadens our understanding of the cult and also prioritizes the importance of including marginalized voices in historical narratives. Because of this, you could say that my project falls into the ‘history from below’ narrative.

Political Consequences: As a result of various events, occurrences, and movements such as Black Lives Matter and #MeToo, we have realized how our (American) society has not fully solved or gotten rid of most systemic inequalities, as we have been led to believe in the decades following the civil rights movement and women’s suffrage. As a political consequence, my topic and argument add on to this exposure since it reveals how despite the fact that African Americans were the largest demographic of Peoples Temple, and that it has been nearly five decades since the massacre, there still has not been significant attention brought to this racial aspect. I also believe that ultimately, while his initial intentions or feelings regarding race were genuine, Jones preyed on and exploited African American communities; in many ways, this is an example of how so many criminals or “ill-wishers” tend to target the most vulnerable segments of society. We have seen serial killers actively target and seek out victims who are not as protected, and whose deaths or disappearances will not be immediately noticed or thoroughly investigated by the authorities. Consequently, my research advocates for a recognition of the deep-seated systemic issues that Jones was able to utilize to his advantage, and also challenges simplistic narratives that often depict Peoples Temple members, particularly African Americans, as merely brainwashed or gullible.

Personal Importance or Motivations: I started researching my topic mostly due to my fascination and curiosity as to why so many members of my race joined Jones’ church. While I knew beforehand that a considerable number of Black people were members, I did not realize that they made up the majority of the congregation and thus most of the victims at Jonestown. It made me wonder if Jonestown should have a place in African American history. Additionally, my late maternal grandmother and her sisters were very religious and essentially had the same identity as those who sat in the front pews of Peoples Temple: older Black women from the southern United States. In my attempts to better understand and empathize with those who joined, I usually end up imagining or even concluding that my grandmother and great aunts could have become members of the church, had it ever been based in any of the cities they lived in at the time.

Geographical and Chronological Scope: On that note, the geographical and chronological scope of my project generally spans from the mid-20th century United States to the late 1970s in South America. Specifically, it begins with the founding of Peoples Temple in Indianapolis in 1954, during the civil rights movement. However, Jones wanted to expand and also (claimed to have) believed that a nuclear attack would wipe out the city. As a result, the church relocated to the rural community of Redwood Valley, near Ukiah, California in 1965, and increasingly reached out and expanded to more urban and politically active areas where they attracted a larger following, with its primary hub in San Francisco and secondary operations in Los Angeles. Then in the 1970s, due to potential legal pressures and the spreading allegations of abuse within the Temple, Jones and the church’s Planning Commission settled on Guyana as the most suitable place outside the US to establish a commune. He arrived in their new settlement, Jonestown, in May of 1977 with nearly several hundred followers.

• First Claim: Jones drew in many African Americans to his church by connecting with traditional Black faith traditions and publicly advocating for racial equality, integration, civil rights, and social welfare, and he maintained their support and membership by demonstrating his active commitment to these ideals through various initiatives.
  • Primary Document #1 Analysis: Jones delivered many sermons in which he fervently expressed his belief in racial, social, and economic justice, such as in the following recorded 1973 sermon. In it, he addresses the fact that half of the African American population at the time were unemployed and his strong belief that “we need Blacks with power, and we need Black identity.” He even goes as far as to declare himself and identify as Black. This audio is one of many existing firsthand accounts that exemplify Jones’ professed (or purported) dedication to Black liberation and civil rights.
  • Primary Document #2 Analysis: Before her death in Jonestown on November 18, 1978, Barbara Walker, a Black female member, wrote two poems; one of which is titled “The Front Line in Ballad and Thought.” Many lines of the poem highlight themes of race, equality, and the pursuit of a better life free from oppression and discrimination, which Walker staunchly believed Jones was giving her and other African Americans at Jonestown. She makes references to the “great rainbow family” or multiracial family and community Jones had established, along with their refusal to continue to “endure the racism and rejection and poverty in [America’s] capitalistic society.” Her assertions that she has been enabled to be “black and free” and “treated with dignity” reveal how Jones’ promises of social justice and equality resonated deeply with people of color. This primary source supports my first claim because it is written from the perspective of an African American congregant who saw Jones as a leader who provided a sanctuary from racial persecution.
• Second Claim: Ultimately, Jones’ contributions and pledges of racial equality were not fully realized or met for Black members within the church itself, as they experienced certain inequities such as unequal treatment and limited advancement.
  • Primary Document #1 Analysis: The “Eight Revolutionaries” were a group of disillusioned young college students who defected from Peoples Temple in 1973 and wrote a manifesto expressing their reasons for doing so and their criticisms of Jones’ leadership and the direction the church was taking. All eight members came from the more prominent or better-off families within the Temple, and despite their privilege or perhaps because of it, they were able to recognize the underlying racial tensions and inequalities within the organization. They famously pointed out that despite the church’s outward appearance as a progressive, racially integrated community as well as the significant number of African American members, real power and decision-making were concentrated in the hands of a mostly white leadership, with Jones at the top. The Eight Revolutionaries’ defection was the first notable or significant breakaway within the cult, and their status as educated and relatively privileged members gave their criticisms additional credibility at the time. Their letter to Jones directly supports my argument that Jones’ advocacy did not fully align with the reality of life within the church and demonstrates some internal discontent regarding his betrayal of the ideals that initially attracted so many members in the first place.
  • Primary Document #2 Analysis: Three African American survivors or former members, Herbert Newell, Yulanda Williams, and Leslie Wagner-Wilson, were interviewed in 2021 and extensively discussed their personal experiences and perspectives pertaining to race in the church. Interestingly, they brought up the fact that Jones’ inner circle was all-white (predominantly white women) and that there were only a handful of African Americans who were ever promoted to higher positions within the Temple. Furthermore, in Jonestown, it was mostly the African American members who had to work long hours in the fields. Newell stated that despite some like him recognizing these gaps and hypocrisies, the environment that had been created in the church made it so that they couldn’t express their thoughts or feelings about it without fear of punishment or reprisal.

 Works Cited

Annotated Bibliography of Primary Sources

Garry, Charles. Goodlett, Carlton. “The KNBC Interviews of Don Harris.” Conducted by Don Harris. Transcribed by Sandy Bradshaw, Alternative Considerations, 13 Nov. 1978. https://jonestown.sdsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/06-harris1.pdf.

— Before traveling to Jonestown where he would be killed a few days after his arrival alongside congressman Leo Ryan shortly before the massacre occurred, NBC News correspondent Don Harris interviewed two men who were not members of Peoples Temple but had close ties to the organization. One was Charles Garry, who acted as a Temple’s attorney and had also provided legal counsel to the Black Panther Party and represented its founder, Huey Newton. The other interviewee was prominent African American civil rights activist and newspaper publisher Dr. Carlton Goodlett, who was also Jones’ personal physician and publisher of the Sun-Reporter, one of the most influential Black newspapers in San Francisco. In the interview, Garry and Goodlett express their strong support for Peoples Temple and skepticism towards the allegations made against it, bringing up their personal experiences and positive impressions of the community. Garry praises its establishment in Guyana as a utopia and implies that any negative portrayals stem from misconceptions and external agendas. Similarly, Goodlett specifically commends it as a successful model of racial equality, socialist progress, and collective achievement. While they are not necessarily figures whose words (before and after the massacre) should be taken at face value or as indisputable truth, I opted to include Garry and Goodlett’s interviews with NBC in my research project because I believe that given their backgrounds, their viewpoints add more complexity to the narrative surrounding race in the cult, especially as outside proponents as well.

Jones, Jim. “Q974.” San Francisco, Alternative Considerations, May 1973. https://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/nas/streaming/ dept/scuastaf/collections/peoplestemple/MP3/Q974.MP3.

— This sermon delivered by Jones in 1973 is a very useful audiotape for my research focus as it is a perfect demonstration of the messages that Jones preached to his followers, and how inclusive and unconventional they were at the time. Throughout the sermon, Jones presents himself as a leader who accepts individuals from diverse backgrounds and encourages them to see him as a symbol of various religious figures, including Allah and Buddha. He also speaks about his own (supposed) mixed racial heritage and aligns himself with the struggles of marginalized groups. Interestingly, he points out the hypocrisy and even dark irony of some Black Christians defending a religion that played a significant role in their ancestors’ enslavement and the erasure of their culture. Jones also rejects racial labels and emphasizes that Blackness is a moral disposition and consciousness that transcends physical characteristics like skin color. Frankly, I believe a tape like this effectively showcases the appeal of Jones or at least that of his preaching, potentially making it easier to understand why people of various backgrounds became members.

Jones, Jim, Jr., et al. “Jonestown: Terror in the Jungle.” Directed by Shan Nicholson. YouTube, uploaded by Kevin Vogt, Nov. 2018. https://youtu.be/vqVbFc6Vq9U?si=97LMfT rbbdyGR3jq.

— Nicholson’s documentary features interviews with multiple survivors, including Jim Jones’ two surviving sons, Stephan Gandhi Jones and Jim Jones, Jr. I am especially interested in the latter’s words because I believe that due to being an African American, his account offers both a unique and intimate firsthand perspective on the inner workings and circumstances within Peoples Temple. The first Black child to be adopted by a white couple in Indiana at the time, in 1961 Jim Jr. became one of several children that made up his father’s “rainbow family,” as his siblings included Korean Americans and Stephan, the white biological son of Jones and his wife Marceline. In particular, I think that Jim Jr., along with his brother, provide some insights or even answers regarding the extent to which any of Jones’ intentions were sincere. For instance, when it comes to race, both sons state that their father understood what it was like to be treated differently and that it truly seemed to bother him that some groups were treated as such because of their skin color. However, they also believe that their multi-racial family was “done for show.”

Miller, Christine. Letter to Jim Jones. Alternative Considerations, 1978. https://crimson-phillie-71.tiiny.site.

— Christine Miller is remembered as the only person known to publicly speak out against Jones during the mass murder-suicide that took place in their Jonestown settlement in Guyana on November 18, 1978. Her efforts ultimately drowned out, Miller tragically met her end that day, but her arguments and words of protest can be heard in the infamous “death tape” recorded during the event. An African American county clerk, Miller moved to and arrived in Jonestown on January 3rd of that year. The above letter was recently identified and confirmed to have been written by her and addressed to Jones himself, sometime the same year. In the letter, Miller expresses her simultaneous gratitude and dissatisfaction with the so-called “Promised Land” that had been established. She mentions her past hardships, her desire for peace, and concerns about internal conflicts within the community. This source is important to my research project because it is a firsthand account from a Black member of Peoples Temple that directly details her experiences within the cult, her thoughts and feelings towards it, and most of all, the limitations and even disillusionment she was faced with. The original document may not be officially published in the Jonestown archive yet, but its main researcher Fielding McGehee was kind enough to provide me with access to and permission to use it.

Newell, Hebert; Williams, Yulanda; and Wagner-Wilson, Leslie. “Black Jonestown Survivors On How They Survived, The Cult Of Jim Jones, His Sexuality & Lives Lost.” Interview Conducted by Clay Cane. YouTube, uploaded by The Clay Cane Show, Apr. 2021, https://youtu.be/6hN9e7cRAYk?si=MaQ2RNSmPCSkdhb9. https://youtu.be/5m9OmIJPjB U?si=oTKTPcM-SOuFutBF.

— Both parts of this interview with three African American Jonestown survivors cover a wide range of various topics, including not just their individual experiences but also their perspectives on mental health, diversity, philosophical reflections, and how their values have changed over time. They open by discussing their different upbringings, their journey with religion or faith before they became familiar with Peoples Temple, how their paths in life led them to join at a young age, and how their parents or relatives perceived Jones and the Temple. One of the most valuable parts of the interview for me is when each explains what they believe was the appeal of Jones’ church to Black communities: they cite the availability of social services, a sense of belonging, and the Temple’s purported alignment with revolutionary ideas. Williams also brings up the historical context, particularly that the African American community was “lost” and “in search of answers” following the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. As the interview progresses, Newell, Williams, and Wagner-Wilson share their personal experiences leading up to the massacre and their lives afterwards. I really appreciate how comprehensive and candid the interview is overall, because they get to touch on moments of self-doubt, their search for authenticity, and share certain details that they do not usually get the chance to explore in most interviews about Jonestown. Additionally, the second part of the interview is especially interesting because Williams and Wagner-Wilson draw similarities between Jones and recent political figures, namely Donald Trump.

“The Eight Revolutionaries.” Letter to Jim Jones, 1973. Alternative Considerations , 17 Feb. 2013. https://jonestown. sdsu.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/g8.pdf.

— A disillusioned group of eight young college students, referred to collectively as the Eight Revolutionaries, left Peoples Temple in 1973. In the wake of their defection, they penned the above letter to Jim Jones, listing in detail their reasons for breaking ties with the movement. I chose to include this letter because, among their grievances, the defectors famously point out the hypocrisy they observed within the church regarding Jones’ professed commitment to uplifting and empowering African Americans, juxtaposed against the composition of his inner circle and thus the leadership of the temple, which was overwhelmingly white.

Thrash, Catherine (Hyacinth) as told to Marion K. Towne. The Onliest One Alive: Surviving Jonestown, Guyana. Indianapolis, IN: M. Towne, 1995. https://jonestown.sdsu.edu/wp-content/ uploads/2019/10/Onliest-One-Alive.pdf.

— When Jones ordered all members of Peoples Temple to come to the pavilion in Jonestown on November 18, 1978, the late Hyacinth Thrash decided not to go. After hearing gunshots, she hid underneath her bed, and eventually fell asleep, surviving the massacre of most of the community, including her sister, Zipporah. Her memoir is the only firsthand account written by an elderly African American female survivor of Jonestown. Thrash covers her childhood, meeting Jones, joining his integrated church, following him from Indianapolis, to California, and finally to Guyana, and her survival. I firmly believe that this primary source is very different from all the others in this bibliography, especially in terms of complexities. Thrash had initially been a staunch supporter and believer in Jones but was gradually disillusioned. In her eyes, Jones was a church leader with good intentions until he met Father Divine. She gave up her property to Jones, which she regretted. I think it can be said that in this memoir, we see her outlook on Jones and his authenticity evolve from viewing him as a man of God to a man “of the Devil.”

Walker, Barbara. “The Front Line in Ballad and Thought.” Alternative Considerations, Nov. 1977. https://jonestown.sdsu .edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/vol127pp125.146_522.pdf.

— Walker, a young African American woman from Los Angeles, passed away alongside her three children in Jonestown on the day of the massacre in 1978. During the 16 months she resided there, she penned two lengthy poems. I decided to include the one that recounts the Six-Day Siege, a period of heightened tension in the settlement in September 1977. Due to their perception of legal and governmental threats, Jones and other Temple leaders fostered a belief among the community that they were in imminent danger from the Guyana Defense Force. This poem by Walker was of particular interest to me because in addition to encapsulating the spirit of resistance and hope that characterized Temple members at the time, she also reflects on the community’s decision to leave behind the racism and inequality they faced in the United States and seek refuge in a new land. I also believe that certain aspects of the poem, such as referring to the U.S. as “the land of KKK,” potentially highlights the influence of Jones’ claims that minorities, particularly African Americans, were being placed in concentration camps to be exterminated by American authorities and that the Ku Klux Klan had risen to power. Through many of Walker’s words here, I can better understand on a personal level the complicated dynamics at play in the Temple community.

Annotated Bibliography of Secondary Sources

Box, Georgia. “Escaping American Individualism: Peoples Temple.” Chapter 1: “Race.” Alternative Considerations, 2021. https://jonestown.sdsu.edu/?page_id=110708#Race.

— In the initial chapter of her work, Box first provides a breakdown of the racial composition of Peoples Temple, notably its predominantly African American membership. She then brings up and attempts to address effectively a key aspect of my research inquiry: the factors and influences that might have shaped their decision to become affiliated with an institution headed by a white leader, especially considering the historical context. Box also emphasizes early on the need to ensure that the voices of Black people are not neglected or excluded when studying Peoples Temple, as they tend to be when it comes to narratives about the Temple. To her, their involvement as well as the contemporary social issues their community faced play an essential role in both the trajectory and individualism of this religious organization.

Chidester, David. Salvation and Suicide: An Interpretation of Jim Jones, the Peoples Temple, and Jonestown.Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1988. https://jonestown.sdsu.edu/wp-content/ uploads/2021/06/Salvation-and-Suicide.pdf.

— In this book, Chidester lays out Jim Jones’ worldview, beliefs, and ideology, and how they connected to and culminated in the massacre in Guyana. While Chidester’s work is not solely about the racial aspect, it makes repeated and thorough mentions of it throughout, such as Jones’ claims to identify as an African American, his adoption of non-white children, his hypocrisy, and more. I believe what might set this writing apart from the others in this bibliography is that the author attempts to examine the movement, situation, and Jones’ mentality in time and space. Chidester tries to historicize this topic and uncover how the psychology involved appeared, particularly compared to contemporary culture.

Hutchinson, Sikivu. “No More White Saviors: Jonestown and Peoples Temple in the Black Feminist Imagination.” Alternative Considerations, 5 Oct. 2014. https://jonestown.sdsu.edu/?page_id=61499.

— One of the founders of BlackJonestown.org, Hutchinson makes an effort to explore the experiences of Black people within Peoples Temple, specifically those of Black women which have gone underrepresented. She goes into detail on the complexities of their contributions, challenging stereotypes and highlighting their agency in an environment full of racism, sexism, and religious fervor. Hutchinson also discusses how she sought to address all of this in her novel, White Nights, Black Paradise, which centers on three fictional Black women in the movement and its settlement in Guyana. When I spoke to Fielding McGehee, co-founder and principal researcher of the Jonestown Institute, along with his wife Rebecca Moore, he stated that essentially, addressing this historiographical gap has been a critical and central focus for Hutchinson as well as some other scholars and survivors. Due to her further emphasis on the intersection of gender and race, I felt that including one of her works would be very helpful to my research project.

Maaga, Mary McCormick. Hearing the Voices of Jonestown: Putting a Human Face on an American Tragedy.Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1998.

— In Hearing the Voices of Jonestown, Maaga covers a large scope in her deconstruction of Peoples Temple and comes full circle. Since Black people significantly made up a majority of the congregation, the author touches upon this fact throughout, why this was the case, and how it related directly to many other factors and occurrences. I firmly believe that this book is valuable to my research because Maaga attempts to tackle erasure, power dynamics, and community, themes that naturally intertwine with my overall topic. That said, while her exploration of women in the Temple is both commendable and unprecedented, her work falls short of inclusivity by failing to incorporate the voices of Black women to the same extent. Consequently, the book plays a complementary yet contradictory role in my research: its duality makes it both a pivotal, groundbreaking study as well as a cautionary example and reminder of the limitations in historiography that my project strives to address.

Moore, Rebecca. Pinn, Anthony B. Sawyer, Mary R., eds. Peoples Temple and Black Religion in America.Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 2004. https://jonestown.sdsu.edu/ wp-content/uploads/2021/06/Peoples-Temple-and-Black-Religion.pdf.

— This book is dedicated to exposing and outlining the multifaceted relationship between the Peoples Temple movement and the African American community. The authors go against the prevailing notion of the former as solely being a cult under the full control of Jim Jones. Instead, through a series of essays, they delve into various race-related aspects of the church, such as its demographic composition and how it interacted with Black religious culture. I chose to use and include Peoples Temple and Black Religion in America in my research project because it does a good job of situating the organization within the Black politics and religious expressions of the 60s and 70s.

Moore, Rebecca. “The Erasure (and Re-inscription) of African Americans from the Jonestown Narrative.” Alternative Considerations, Dec. 2018. https://jonestown.sdsu.edu/?page_id=99186.

— In this historiography, Moore, who is the co-founder and site manager of Jonestown Institute, sister of two prominent (but deceased) members of Jones’ inner circle, and one of the authors of Peoples Temple and Black Religion in America, meticulously dissects how historical accounts and depictions of Peoples Temple and the Jonestown tragedy have often overlooked the large presence of Black members within the movement, intentionally and unintentionally. I especially appreciate that Moore seems to convey that the African Americans who joined were not passive victims but complicated individuals who were grappling with issues of identity, empowerment, and disillusionment. She also engages with personal narratives and accounts by various Black survivors and writers to not only shed light on the racial tensions within the organization, but to also reclaim and reinterpret the Jonestown narrative from a different lens. Overall, Moore analyzes poetry, memoirs, fictional representations, and other literary works to demonstrate the importance of amplifying marginalized voices and fostering a more nuanced understanding of the events surrounding my topic, in contrast to the more simplistic narratives that exist.

Mullins, Nicholas. “The Black Preacher From Indiana: The Reverend Jim Jones and the Rise and Fall of Peoples Temple.” Alternative Considerations, 27 Oct. 2017. https://jonestown.sdsu.edu/?page_id= 70877.

— This writing by Mullins gives a very comprehensive overview of the Peoples Temple movement, from its origins and inception all the way to its tragic end at Jonestown. This work is very important to my research project because it details the cult’s social justice initiatives and how they resonated with marginalized communities, particularly among African Americans. Specifically, Mullins traces the expansion of the cult, and its social programs aimed at racial integration and community empowerment. The narrative then shifts to Jones’ promises of a utopian society with the establishment of Jonestown in Guyana, and the increasing control he exerted over his followers.

Taylor, James Lance. Chapter 4, “Black Churches, Peoples Temple, and Civil Rights Politics.” In From Every Mountainside: Black Churches and the Broad Terrain of Civil Rights, ed. Drew R. Smith, (pp. 52–66). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2014.

— This historical analysis by Taylor focuses on how Peoples Temple intersected with and was in many ways a product of the broader struggles for civil rights and social justice during its time. He analyzes the appeal of Peoples Temple to Black congregants and how it engaged with and challenged traditional Black church structures. Taylor also examines the role of charismatic leaders like Jim Jones in mobilizing African American members and their implications. I selected this source for my research because it provides a more general look at the socio-political context surrounding the movement, possibly more so than the other sources I have listed.

(Kiana Parker is a junior attending John Jay College in NYC, majoring in Global History. She originally submitted this paper for a History Research and Writing Methods class. She may be reached at kianaparker11@gmail.com.)