The Hidden Role of Malignant Narcissists in History

(Editor’s note: This paper was written for a law school course at Pepperdine University on “Psychology of Conflict Communication.”)

Introduction

It should be no surprise that our world has a history of violent conflict and destruction. One need only consider modern tragedies such as the Holocaust, both world wars, and the abundance of death and loss that plagued the 20th century. However, this legacy of deceit and brutality has existed for millennia and dates back to the multi-century Slave trade, the Eurasian Mongol conquests in the 13th century, European colonization of the Americas and Africa, and countless other wars and battles that are too long to list. In short, not only do we live in a world driven by carnage, but we have also inherited a world that is the product of these homicidal tendencies and behavior patterns. Yet, most people attribute the onset of these events to “unique circumstances” where the elements of war and hostility converged at the right time. I do not discredit this view but would like to introduce another influential yet seemingly underrated factor: high-conflict personalities. Thus, I believe circumstances alone did not produce these events but rather the amalgamation of dire circumstances and provocative and antagonistic personalities combined to create these horrible world events that we all abhor. Accordingly, this report will analyze the role of high-conflict personalities applied to two well-known historical figures: Peoples Temple leader Jim Jones and Rome’s perhaps most controversial leader, Julius Caesar. While there are other perhaps compelling subjects for review, such as Adolf Hitler and Josef Stalin, there is plenty of available literature on these individuals. In contrast, many have forgotten the tragedies brought forth by Jim Jones, and the exploits of Julius Caesar could always benefit from a fresh perspective. Nonetheless, the prevailing theory used to analyze these individuals is malignant narcissism, an advanced form of narcissism that incorporates other personality disorders. Accordingly, this report will define malignant narcissism, analyze each individual for traits of the illness, describe the motivations behind their behavior, hypothesize why these individuals possessed a high degree of influence, and conclude.

Defining Malignant Narcissism

First, before reviewing the relevant historical figures, defining the methodology by which we will analyze these individuals feels appropriate. For our purposes, our methodology is based on the concept of malignant narcissism (MN). First coined by German social psychologist and psychoanalyst Erich Fromm, the term describes an acute mental illness or condition that Fromm describes as “the quintessence of evil.”^[1] Fromm ventured further to describe the illness as “the most severe pathology and the root of the most vicious destructiveness and inhumanity,” with other notable psychoanalysts labeling it as a “regressive escape from frustration by distortion and denial of reality” and “a disturbing form of narcissistic personality where grandiosity is built around aggression and the destructive aspects of the self-become idealized.”^[2] The most defining characteristics of malignant narcissism include a colossal feeling of grandiosity; lack of empathy; lack of remorse; impulsivity; disdain for other people’s rights; and a tendency for deception and destructive behavior.^[3] Unlike Narcissistic Personality disorder, those with Malignant narcissism do not need external validation and exhibit characteristics of other personality disorders.^[4] Some professionals conflate the terms “malignant narcissist” and “psychopath” due to their undeniable clinical similarities, but this distinction is immaterial as we will only focus on the former.^[5] Accordingly, the prevailing theory, in addition to these defining qualities, involves a mix of the following four attributes^[6]: narcissism (all-knowing with no empathy)^[7], antisocial propensities (destructive behavior, impulsivity, lying, and aggression)^[8], paranoid ideations (heightened sense of precaution, everything is a secret agenda against the individual)^[9], and sadism (exploitation of others and deriving pleasure from the pain of others).^[10] Perhaps the most defining attribute is the internalization and idealization of aggression which firmly distinguishes the illness from its purely antisocial or narcissistic peers.^[11] Additionally, Kernberg has observed that malignant narcissists likely possess the capacity to display loyalty for their comrades and demonstrate admiration for influential leaders.^[12] Moreover, clinical professionals believe these individuals exhibit Machiavellian tendencies where they tend to do everything and anything to achieve their goal, even if that means sacrificing or harming others.^[13] Lastly, researchers continue to emphasize the importance of etiological or non-biological factors in the early onset of malignant narcissism. Hence, an individual with a biological predisposition towards mental illness, early and late adolescent relational trauma (i.e. abusive parents), an impoverished or stressful living environment, and family dysfunction are more likely than not to develop malignant narcissism.^[14]

With these basics established, let us begin our review.

Study 1: Jim Jones

Our first study revolves around well-known People Temples leader Jim Jones. The analysis will consist of two steps: a review of etiological factors, the specific traits that Jones exhibited, and the motivations behind his actions.

To summarize the etiological factors, Jones’ upbringing was difficult.^[15] Born during the Great Depression in a small, poor town in Indiana, Jones grew up with a disabled WWI veteran as a father and an educated mother who could not prosper due to societal barriers in place for women.^[16] The record posits that Jones was acutely aware of his extreme poverty based on his statements and statements from family and friends.^[17] The extreme poverty and embarrassment forced Jones to internalize an incredible amount of shame, which caused him to feel like an outcast.^[18] What’s more, Jones and his family did not spend quality time together, and Jones and his father held divergent views about racism, with Jones vehemently opposing his father’s racist beliefs.^[19] Jones was an only child, but both of his parents seemed to neglect him, with historians noting that friends of Jones stated his mother showed no signs of love or affection when they visited.^[20] A family friend observed that Jones was frequently left unchanged as a toddler with “feces” on his clothes and person.^[21]

These data points suggest Jones’ strict upbringing, disengaged parents, and shame internalization satisfy the etiological standard and provide an inflated sense of self required under the current malignant narcissist standard.^[22] Furthermore, Jones’ early sadistic tendencies are shown by his preaching to random strangers that they would be punished for their sins, locking his friends in a room to enjoy their startled reactions, and even shooting at his friends with a .45 revolver when they tried to leave his house.^[23] This also contributes to the antisocial requirement as this was impulsive behavior for which Jones showed no remorse or guilt.^[24] On the topic of paranoia, it seems as though Jones’ mother instilled a distrust of others from an early age, as evidenced by her statement: “there was always some Them out to get you [Jimmy], and [that] reality was whatever you believed.”^[25] Not only does this statement showcase paranoia, but it also displays Jones’ disconnection from reality which could contribute to his grandiose beliefs of likening himself to God.^[26] Lastly, Jones possessed an incredible intellect, allowing him to digest complex popular spiritual and Marxist writings from a young age.^[27] Thus, Jones developed an acute political and religious acumen, coupled with race-conscious sensibilities, that would ultimately allow him to grow his congregation quickly by appealing to many diverse groups.^[28] This gift of intelligence likely also contributed to developing a unique form of narcissism known as the messiah complex (the belief one is or will be a savior), which enabled Jones to feel superior to those around him despite being known in the community as awkward or strange.^[29] As if these observations were not convincing enough, Jones himself, as an adult, would later directly admit to his violent and antisocial propensities by stating:

I was ready to kill. I mean, I was so [expletive] aggressive and hostile, I was ready to kill. Nobody gave me any love, any understanding.^[30]

Moving onto Jones’ motivations, the literature shows that he was a complex man with complex internal struggles. Recall that Jones’ most egregious offenses, which reflect a malignant narcissist personality, include operating a new religious movement that eventually amassed  millions of dollars from attendees, physical and sexual abuse of church members, lying and manipulation via fake healings, blackmail through coerced testimony, and the exploitation of faithful, hard-working, religious people who wished to serve God but instead met an early death.^[31] Perhaps the most egregious transgression came from Jones’ routine suicide practices or “White Nights,” which ultimately developed into the mass murder-suicide of November 18th, 1978.^[32] Nonetheless, while the ordeal remains a mystery, new developments shed light on the why and how behind the Jonestown massacre. For instance, researchers now attribute Jones’ suicide fixation with Huey Newton’s concept of Revolutionary Suicide in lieu of capture and have also identified threats of investigation from the FBI and the IRS as catalysts for Jones’ hastiness to conduct the real mass-suicide as a means of escape.^[33]  Jones did not adhere to original meaning of the term which was more figurative in nature but rather encouraged his followers to actually commit suicide as a means to a glorious end in service to themselves and to their community.^[34]  Furthermore, Jones’ sudden move from Indiana to Ukiah, California, was motivated by his apocalyptic paranoid distortions as he read that in the event of an impending nuclear war, Ukiah would be the safest place due to its secluded geographic location.^[35]

To Jones, allowing even one of the children to return home would sabotage his perfectly orchestrated plan and spur others to retrieve their loved ones from Jonestown, so the only logical solution in his mind was to commit murder-suicide.^[36] While Jones rationalized “individual suicide [as] wasteful,” and believed mass suicide would encourage future generations to stand against oppression, the Jonestown deaths have become known not “as a grandly defiant revolutionary gesture, but as the ultimate example of human gullibility.”^[37] Finally, experts attribute the efficacy of Jones’ influence to not only his religious, political, and race-conscious sensibilities, as discussed above but also due to his natural charisma and his implementation of social psychological mind control techniques first explicated by George Orwell in his novel 1984.^[38] The methods included initial exploitation of his follower’s religious and racial ideals, around-the-clock surveillance with field agents reporting directly to Jones, all-day recordings of Jones to replace the followers’ inner voice, use of self-incriminating statements and blackmail to humiliate and enforce loyalty publicly, frequent suicide drills to desensitize followers, and perception warping by Orwell’s newspeak technique where Jones requested thanks from his followers for good food and fair work schedules but in reality, the followers were overworked, underpaid, and faced health issues including malnutrition, severe diarrhea, and high fevers.^[39] The world will forever remember the lives of 900 seemingly naive yet pious individuals and children who were looking for the light in a world ravaged by darkness.

Study 2: Julius Caesar

The Greeks told us of a man in a high position, self-confident, so successful as to be overpowering to others. Then his virtues turned to failings. He committed the crime of arrogance. His structure of self-confidence and success came tumbling down.^[40]

Based on the historical accounts of Julius Caesar, this quote seems to accurately represent the once-revered emperor who has become one of history’s most explicit examples of dictatorship at its worst. As is customary, this report will analyze Caesar’s life in terms of relevant etiological factors, the specific traits that Caesar exhibited, and the motivations behind his actions. To begin, Caesar came from the long line of “patrician Julii” families who possessed great historical prominence but, around the time of Caesar’s birth, experienced a season of impoverishment.^[41] No individual from the Caesar family had possessed the high title of Consul, and while Caesar’s father served a respectable role in the Senate, the family largely lacked any notoriety.^[42] Not much is known about Caesar’s mother or his relationship with his parents, but historians characterize his mother, Aurelia, as a “remarkable woman and a major influence on the life of her son.”^[43]The degree of said influence is unknown.^[44] Still, Caesar was raised among the lower class in Rome’s common quarters, which created significant challenges in obtaining political and social mobility.^[45] Like Jim Jones, Caesar developed great political acumen from a young age and realized that he could champion the “common man” as a means to achieving political support and power.^[46] However, it is unclear if Caesar initially made statements to garner support and loyalty but did not honestly believe what he was championing.^[47]

Nevertheless, Caesar developed a robust political career as a teenager, opposing then-emperor Sulla around 82 B.C.^[48]Sulla had a practice of having his political opponents murdered so Caesar fled Rome and would later find himself in the custody of pirates.^[49] It is here that glimpses of Caesar’s sadistic and egotistical tendencies come to light.^[50] While in custody, Caesar made death threats, boasted about his own “greatness,” and labeled those who would not listen to his words as illiterate barbarians.^[51] Caesar also threatened to crucify all robbers and honored his word when he returned to his captivity location (the harbor of Miletus) in what is now known as modern-day Turkey.^[52] Thus, the synthesis of this information is unclear as to whether Caesar’s upbringing provides the requisite etiological background necessary for malignant narcissism. While one could assume his impoverished upbringing created feelings of shame and overcompensation through the creation and projection of an inflated ego, there is not much in the literature to substantiate this claim.^[53] Similar to how in the law of First Amendment jurisprudence, speculation regarding quid pro quo political corruption is not enough, evidence of an impoverished background without more is likely also not enough.^[54] Regarding political matters, the available information suggests that as the champion of the “common man’s” rights, Caesar initially was passionate about this cause, fighting side by side with his supporters but would later allow his “laurels” and new-found power to corrupt him.^[55] Additionally, there is no history of mental illness, abandonment, or rejection in Caesar’s family, and while his father suddenly died when he was 16, Caesar did not appear to start life as a malignant narcissist.^[56] Therefore, it appears that the etiological factors are not present, so perhaps Caesar exhibited some formal clinical characteristics of malignant narcissism.

As I discussed above, modern psychoanalysts and psychologists have shed light on the specific parameters required to define malignant narcissism. Hence, while Caesar’s upbringing did not provide any clarity, it is likely his patterns of behavior will likely implicate some of the clinical characteristics. For example, researchers have characterized Caesar as a serial adulterer who would deceive and tempt married women.^[57] This behavior pattern illustrates deception and destruction through the desecration of another relationship and also showcases Caesar’s impulsivity as he did not deny but indulged in every visceral inclination he had.^[58] On this topic, Caesar frequently showed no remorse and prescribed strict rules against adultery and infidelity for his followers despite his deviant exploits.^[59] Coupled with his early egotistical propensities, the narcissistic prong is likely met, while the antisocial requirement is partially met due to the aforementioned destructive behavior, impulsivity, and dishonesty. As an aside, Caesar was easily a narcissist as he was the first Roman leader to have multiple busts or extant portraits made in his likeness.^[60] One can attribute this fascination with self-appearance and image to an inflated ego and egoistic worldview, thus continuing to build the case for narcissism. Next, while some historians assign a degree of paranoia to Caesar based on Shakespeare’s illustrations in his works, there is little to no evidence supporting this assertion.^[61] Instead, by all indications and accounts, Caesar appeared to be full of ambition, did not even fear death, and encouraged his followers to adopt this braggadocio.^[62]Accordingly, the paranoia prong is not met here.

Regarding sadism, Caesar has a long track record of questionable activities. From using his eloquent oration skills at his first wife’s funeral to endear people to manipulating those around him to using money bribes to buy political loyalty to the orchestration of live mass killings at the Circus Maximus, Caesar’s behaviors were not only disturbing but brutal, perverse, and barbaric.^[63] Additionally, Caesar’s dictatorial regime positioned him as a king and later as a god, with his followers fulfilling this desire through the posthumous deification of Caesar as a deity in Roman mythology.^[64] Lastly, Caesar initially showed admiration for Alexander the Great but later came to resent his successes and operated as a “charismatic strongman” whose charm beguiled people into accepting a violent social order with military aggression as Caesar’s favorite tactic of choice.^[65] In fact, during the Conquest of Gaul, a neighboring region, historians believe Caesar’s army likely killed one million people, enslaved one million more, oppressed 300 tribes, and pillaged and demolished 800 cities.^[66]

All in all, Julius Caesar is a complex and undoubtedly complicated individual, but the question remains regarding whether he is a malignant narcissist. Despite lacking any background in clinical psychological training, without the requisite etiological factors and paranoid ideations, I am hesitant to categorize Caesar in this particular category home to other figures, including Jim Jones, the Egyptian pharaohs, and perhaps even Donald Trump, based on popular sentiment. Moreover, without these tools, it is not easy to decipher the motivations behind Caesar’s actions. While he could have been preoccupied with pursuing power and status, this feels like an oversimplification of the rather complex inner machinations of one of the world’s most storied people. Furthermore, while Caesar engaged in the aforementioned barbaric and sadistic practices, he likely followed Roman practices that were popular then.^[67] On top of this, Caesar positively contributed to the development of Roman society and culture as ruler as he enlarged the senate, reformed the government, decreased monetary debt, rebuilt city-states, and even extended benevolent citizenship exceptions to foreigners living in the Roman Republic.^[68] Nonetheless, while I am not defending Caesar, I am simply advocating for one not to consider his life or actions as only good or bad. As laid out in the previous pages, Julius Caesar’s imperfections and flaws are numerous in number but do not correlate with a positive diagnosis of malignant narcissism. Any scholar worth their salt would refrain from making such a grandiose assumption, lest this assumption creates a rebuttable presumption that all who engage in similar behaviors are malignant narcissists. To avoid that end, I encourage intellectual and analytical honesty, where we review the facts and circumstances as they are. This logical plan persuades me that Julius Caesar did not meet the criteria to be categorized as a malignant narcissist, though I am open to hearing new insights about his seemingly illustrious yet infamous life and career.

Conclusion

Ultimately, there is no denying that malignant narcissism is rising today in our world and society. As the next generation of lawyers, having a strategic plan and working theory to address these individuals will be paramount. Thankfully, clinical professionals have done a great job elucidating the standards and requirements, and so while most people cannot make a formal diagnosis, they can undoubtedly observe and adjust their behaviors and interactions accordingly. For the figures at the heart of this report, Julius Caesar and Jim Jones, the controlling standards yielded divergent results. Based on the amalgamation of my lengthy research, I am comfortable asserting that Jim Jones was likely a malignant narcissist with proficiency in mastering different disciplines, emotional manipulation, and charisma. Meanwhile, Julius Caesar, in my estimation, was likely not a malignant narcissist but rather an antisocial personality with sadistic and impulsive inclinations. Regardless of how these individuals are portrayed, they have left a largely negative indelible mark on our world, with Caesar delivering some positive contributions and Jim Jones fighting against racism and bigotry, albeit in his own self-destructive way.  Still, what remains is an essential war against these covert personalities that continue to ravage and destroy lives. I hope this study has shed light on the dangers these types of individuals present and that it has spurred motivation to do all you can as a lawyer, clinical professional, or ordinary person to mitigate the damage. Together, we might be able to make a change…

References

Notes

[1] Fromm, E. (1964). The Heart of Man: Its Genius for Good and Evil [Print]. Harper & Row.

[2] Fromm; Rosenfeld HA (1971) Contribution to the psychopathology of psychotic states: the importance of projective identification in the ego structure and the object relations of psychotic patients. Taylor & Francis Group, UK. 1: 131-149; Akhtar, S. (2009). Comprehensive Dictionary of Psychoanalysis [Print]. Karnac.

[3] Sabater, V. (2021, November 15). Malignant Narcissism According to Erich Fromm. Exploring Your Mind. https://exploringyourmind.com/malignant-narcissism-according-to-erich-fromm/.

[4] Sabater; Paulhus, D. L., & Williams, K. M. (2002). The Dark Triad of personality: Narcissism, Machiavellianism, and psychopathy. Journal of Research in Personality, 36(6), 556–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0092-6566(02)00505-6.

[5] Ronningstam, E. F. (2000). Disorders of Narcissism: Diagnostic, Clinical, and Empirical Implications (1st ed.). Jason Aronson, Inc.

[6]  Campbell, Robert Jean (2009). Campbells’ Psychiatric Dictionary (Ninth ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 574. ISBN 978-0-19-534159-1. LCCN 2008035593; Eddy, B. (2019, March 12). Malignant Narcissism: Does the President Really Have It? PsychologyToday. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/5-types-people-who-can-ruin-your-life/201903/malignant-narcissism-does-the-president-really#:~:text=Malignant%20narcissism%2C%20thus%2C%20is%20not,all%20show%20certain%20similar%20features;

[7] Kernberg, Otto F. (1970). “Factors in the psychoanalytic treatment of narcissistic personalities”.Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. 18 (1): 51–85. doi:10.1177/000306517001800103. PMID 5451020. S2CID 9499780

[8] Lenzenweger, Mark F. et al. (January 2018). “Malignant narcissism in relation to clinical change in borderline personality disorder: An exploratory study”. Psychopathology. Basel, Switzerland: Karger Publishers. 51 (5): 318–325. doi:10.1159/000492228. PMID 30184541. S2CID 52160230

[9] See note 6 Eddy.

[10]Neuharth, D. (2019, May 25). What Exactly Is “Malignant Narcissism”? PsychologyToday. https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/narcissism-demystified/201905/what-exactly-is-malignant-narcissism.

[11] Kernberg, Otto F. (1998). “The psychotherapeutic management of psychopathic, narcissistic, and paranoid transferences”. In Millon, Theodore; Simonsen, Erik; Birket-Smith, Morten; Davis, Roger D. (eds.). Psychopathy: Antisocial, criminal, and violent behavior. New York City: The Guilford Press. p. 375. ISBN 1-57230-344-1. LCCN 98006845.

[12] Kernberg, Otto F. (1998). Ronningstam, 45.

[13] Glad, B. (2002). Why Tyrants Go Too Far: Malignant Narcissism and Absolute Power. Political Psychology, 23(1), 3. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3792241.

[14] Goldner-Vukov, Mila & Laurie Jo Moore. (2010). Malignant Narcissism: from fairy tales to harsh reality. Psychiatria Danubina, 22(3), 392–405. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20856182/.

[15] Maynard, Gary. Jim Jones and Narcissistic Personality Disorder (NDP) – Part II: Origins from Jim Jones’ early childhood and teen years – Alternative Considerations of Jonestown & Peoples Temple. (n.d.). https://jonestown.sdsu.edu/?page_id=34300.

[16] Maynard.

[17] Maynard; Effron, L., & DelaRosa, M. (2018, September 29). 40 years after Jonestown massacre, ex-members describe Jim Jones as a “real monster.” ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/US/40-years-jonestown-massacre-members-describe-jim-jones/story?id=57933856.

[18] Maynard.

[19] Maynard.

[20] Maynard; Reiterman, T. (2008). Raven: The Untold Story of the Rev. Jim Jones and His People (Illustrated) [Print]. TarcherPerigee.

[21] Reiterman.

[22] Maynard.

[23] Reiterman.

[24] Reiterman.

[25] Guinn, J. (2017). The Road to Jonestown: Jim Jones and Peoples Temple [Print]. Simon & Schuster.

[26] Guinn.

[27] Maynard.

[28] Maynard.

[29] Maynard; Flow Psychology Editor. (2014, February 11). Messiah Complex Psychology | Flow Psychology. https://flowpsychology.com/messiah-complex-psychology/.

[30] Reiterman.

[31] Conroy, O. J. (2018, November 21). An apocalyptic cult, 900 dead: remembering the Jonestown massacre, 40 years on. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/17/an-apocalyptic-cult-900-dead-remembering-the-jonestown-massacre-40-years-on.

[32] Inside the Jonestown massacre – CNN.com. (n.d.). https://edition.cnn.com/2008/US/11/12/jonestown.factsheet/.

[33] Chu, D. (2020, May 29). Jonestown: 13 Things You Should Know About Cult Massacre. RollingStone. Retrieved November 23, 2022, from https://www.rollingstone.com/feature/jonestown-13-things-you-should-know-about-cult-massacre-121974/; Yates, Bonnie. 2008. “The Many Meanings of ‘Revolutionary Suicide’”. The Jonestown Report, October 2008, volume 10. Online at http://jonestown.sdsu.edu/?page_id=31465

[34] Yates.

[35] Chu.

[36] Chu.

[37] Guinn.

[38] Dittman, M. (in press). Lessons from Jonestown. Monitor Staff-American Psychological Association, 34(10), 36.

[39] Dittman.

[40] Beaverbrook, L. (1963). The decline and fall of Lloyd George: and great was the fall thereof (1st Edition) [Print]. Collins.

[41] Julius Caesar – The Early Years | UNRV. (n.d.). https://www.unrv.com/julius-caesar/early-years.php.

[42] Julius Caesar – The Early Years.

[43] Julius Caesar – The Early Years.

[44] Julius Caesar – The Early Years.

[45] Julius Caesar – The Early Years.

[46] Julius Caesar – The Early Years.

[47] Julius Caesar – The Early Years; Beltran, W. (2013). Jonestown, Paradise Lost: An Investigation of Jim Jones and the People’s Temple. The Eastern Illinois University Political Science Review, 3(1). https://thekeep.eiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=1012&context=eiupsr.

[48] Jarus, O. (2022, March 21). Julius Caesar biography: Facts & history. livescience.com. https://www.livescience.com/julius-caesar.

[49] Jarus.

[50] Jarus.

[51] Jarus.

[52] Jarus.

Jarus; Freeman, P. (2008). Julius Caesar [Print]. Simon & Schuster.

[54] Jarus; Federal Election Commission v. Cruz. (n.d.). The First Amendment Encyclopedia. https://www.mtsu.edu/first-amendment/article/2103/federal-election-commission-v-cruz.

[55] Freeman.

[56] Freeman; Goldsworthy, A. (2006). Caesar: Life of a Colossus [Print]. Yale University Press.

[57] Freeman; Goldsworthy.

[58] Freeman; Goldsworthy.

[59] Freeman.

[60] Stevenson, T. (2014). Julius Caesar and the Transformation of the Roman Republic [Print]. Routledge; see also Griffin, M. (2009). A Companion to Julius Caesar [Print]. Wiley-Blackwell; see also Toynbee, J. M. C. (1957). Portraits of Julius Caesar. Greece & Rome, 4(1), 2–9. http://www.jstor.org/stable/641005.

[61] Kearney, C. (1974). The Nature of an Insurrection: Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar.” Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review, 63(250), 141–152. http://www.jstor.org/stable/30088927.

[62] Freeman.

[63] Fuller, J. F. C. (1991). Chapter 13 [Print]. In Julius Caesar: Man, Soldier, And Tyrant; Jarus; Goldsworthy.

[64] Carter, Warren (2012). Imperial Cult and Early Christianity. obo in Biblical Studies. doi: 10.1093/obo/9780195393361-0030.

[65] Freeman; Lai, B., & Slater, D. (2006). Institutions of the Offensive: Domestic Sources of Dispute Initiation in Authoritarian Regimes, 1950-1992. American Journal of Political Science, 50(1), 113–126. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3694260.

[66] Plutarch, L. M. (n.d.). Caesar. In The Parallel Lives (Vol. 7, p. 479). The Loeb Classical Library. https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Caesar*.html.

[67] Aptowicz, C. O. (2022, July 21). Could You Stomach the Horrors of “Halftime” in Ancient Rome? livescience.com. https://www.livescience.com/53615-horrors-of-the-colosseum.html; Malik, S., & Davenport, C. (2018, January 16). Mythbusting Ancient Rome: cruel and unusual punishment. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/mythbusting-ancient-rome-cruel-and-unusual-punishment-87939.

[68] Julius Caesar | National Geographic Society. (n.d.). https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/julius-caesar/.